619 lines
46 KiB
HTML
619 lines
46 KiB
HTML
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title: 1
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description:
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published: true
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date: 2026-02-11T16:06:25.392Z
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tags:
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editor: ckeditor
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dateCreated: 2026-02-11T14:58:54.870Z
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-->
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<h3><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Bohr model (1913)</span></h3>
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<figure class="table">
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<table>
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<tbody>
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<tr>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:200px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Particle</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:200px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Symbol</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:200px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Relative Charge</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:200px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mass Unit</span></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Electron</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">e<sup>-</sup></span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">-1</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">5.4858 x 10<sup>-4</sup></span></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Proton</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">p<sup>+</sup></span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">+1</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">1.0073</span></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Neutron</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">n</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">0</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">1.0073</span></td>
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</tr>
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</tbody>
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</table>
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</figure>
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<p> </p>
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<h3><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Element</span></h3>
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<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Protons = Electrons ⇒ Atom. Neutral.</span></p>
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<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Protons ≠ Electrons ⇒ Ion. Charged.</span></p>
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<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Electrons are surrounding the nucleus, consisting of protons and neutrons.</span></p>
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<p> </p>
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<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mass number are the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.</span></p>
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<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Atomic number are the number of protons in nucleus.</span></p>
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<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For example, <sup>4</sup><sub>2</sub>He, where mass number is written on top left, and atomic number on bottom left.</span></p>
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<p> </p>
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<h3><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Periodic Table</span></h3>
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<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic number, from left to right, from up to down.</span></p>
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<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Each element has a unique atomic number (or the number of proton).</span></p>
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<p> </p>
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<h3><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Electronic arrangement</span></h3>
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<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The maximum number of electron that a shell can hold is 2(n)<sup>2</sup></span></p>
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<p> </p>
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<figure class="table">
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<table>
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<tbody>
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<tr>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:100px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>N</strong></span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:100px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>Max e<sup>-</sup></strong></span></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">1</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">2</span></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">2</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">8</span></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">3</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">18</span></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">4</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">32</span></td>
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</tr>
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</tbody>
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</table>
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</figure>
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<p> </p>
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<h3><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Electronic configuration</span></h3>
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<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There are subshells inside the shell.</span></p>
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<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For example, Cl-17, instead of written 2, 8, 7, we can write more clearly with 2, 2+6, 2+5, that is 1s<sup>2</sup> 2s<sup>2</sup> 2p<sup>6</sup> 3s<sup>2</sup> 3p<sup>5</sup></span></p>
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<p> </p>
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<figure class="table">
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<table>
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<tbody>
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<tr>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:100px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>Subshell</strong></span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:100px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>Orbitals</strong></span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:100px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>Max e<sup>-</sup></strong></span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:200px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>Name of orbital</strong></span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:200px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>Historical Name</strong></span></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">s</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">1</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">2</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">s</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Sharp</span></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">p</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">3</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">6</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">p<sub>x</sub>, p<sub>y</sub>, p<sub>z</sub></span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Principal</span></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">d</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">5</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">10</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">d<sub>xy</sub>, d<sub>xz</sub>, d<sub>yz</sub>, d<sub>x<sup>2</sup>-y<sup>2</sup></sub>, d<sub>z<sup>2</sup></sub></span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Diffuse</span></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">f</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">7</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">14</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Fundamental</span></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">g</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">9</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">18</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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</tr>
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</tbody>
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</table>
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</figure>
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<p> </p>
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<figure class="table">
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<table>
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<tbody>
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<tr>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:100px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>Orbitals</strong></span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:300px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>Quantum Number</strong></span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:300px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>Specify</strong></span></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">n</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> Principal</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The shell of electron belong to</span></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">l</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Angular Momentum</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The subshell of electron occupies</span></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">m</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Magnetic</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The orientation of orbital</span></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">s</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Spin</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">If the electron is spin up or down</span></td>
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</tr>
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</tbody>
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</table>
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</figure>
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<p> </p>
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<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Electrons in boxes diagram</span></p>
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<figure class="table">
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<table>
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<tbody>
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<tr>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⇡⇣</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⇡⇣</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⇡⇣</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⇡⇣</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⇡⇣</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⇡⇣ </span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⇡⇣ </span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> ⇡⇣</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> ⇡</span></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">1s</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">2s</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;" colspan="3"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">2p</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">3s</span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;" colspan="3"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">3p</span></td>
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</tr>
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</tbody>
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</table>
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</figure>
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<p> </p>
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<h3><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Aufbau principle</span></h3>
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<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The lowest energy subshell or orbital will be filled first</span></p>
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<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d</span><br><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></p>
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<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Imagine drawing a line from right to left.</span></p>
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<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">You should be able to find out that 4s subshell has a lower energy than 3d subshell this way.</span><br><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></p>
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<figure class="table">
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<table>
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<tbody>
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<tr>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>n</strong></span></td>
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<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>1</strong></span></td>
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<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⁄ </span></td>
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<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>1</strong></span></td>
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<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">1s</span></td>
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<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>2</strong></span></td>
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<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>3</strong></span></td>
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<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⁄ </span></td>
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<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⁄ </span></td>
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<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
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||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⁄ </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>2</strong></span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">2s</span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">2p </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>4</strong></span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>5</strong></span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⁄ </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⁄ </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⁄ </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⁄ </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>3</strong></span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">3s</span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">3p </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">3d</span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>6</strong></span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>7</strong></span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⁄ </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⁄ </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⁄ </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⁄ </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⁄ </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>4</strong></span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">4s</span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">4p </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">4d</span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">4f</span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>8</strong></span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⁄ </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⁄ </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⁄ </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⁄ </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⁄ </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>5</strong></span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">5s</span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">5p </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">5d</span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">5f</span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⁄ </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⁄ </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⁄ </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:60px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">⁄ </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
</tbody>
|
||
</table>
|
||
</figure>
|
||
<p> </p>
|
||
<h3><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Pauli's exclusion principle</span></h3>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Each orbital can be occupied by no more than 2 electrons.</span></p>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">If 2 electrons occupy the same orbital, they must have opposite spins.</span></p>
|
||
<p> </p>
|
||
<h3><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Hund's rule</span></h3>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Electron must occupy each orbital singly before pairing.</span></p>
|
||
<p> </p>
|
||
<h3><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Exception: Half and full filled orbital</span></h3>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The electronic configuration of Cr (Chromium) and Cu (Copper) do not follow the order. The outer subshell become half or fully filled to gain extra stability.</span></p>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It is also because that 4s and 3d energy difference is small.</span></p>
|
||
<p> </p>
|
||
<h3><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Periodic table groups</span></h3>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Group 1 - Alkali metal</span></p>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Group 2 - Alkaline earth metal</span></p>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Group 17 (7) - Halogen</span></p>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Group 18 (8) - Noble gas</span></p>
|
||
<p> </p>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Noble gases are stable in atomic form because the outermost shell are fully filled.</span></p>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Other element tend to lose, gain or share electron to achieve nearest fully filled electronic structure, that is duplet or octet structure.</span></p>
|
||
<p> </p>
|
||
<h3><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Cation</span></h3>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Atom that loses e-, +ve ions</span></p>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Usually group 1 and 2. Like Li<sup>+</sup>, Na<sup>+</sup>, Mg<sup>2+</sup></span></p>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For transition metal, 4s electron will be lost first. Like Ti<sup>2+</sup>, Cu<sup>+</sup></span></p>
|
||
<p> </p>
|
||
<figure class="table">
|
||
<table>
|
||
<tbody>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:150px;"> </td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:200px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>Name</strong></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:200px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>Color (Water)</strong></span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Li<sup>+</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Lithium ion</span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;" rowspan="10"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Colorless</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Na<sup>+</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Sodium ion</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">K<sup>+</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Potassium ion</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Ag<sup>+</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Silver ion</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mg<sup>2+</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Magnesium ion</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Ca<sup>2+</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Calcium ion</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Zn<sup>2+</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Zinc ion</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Pb<sup>2+</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Lead (II) ion</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Al<sup>3+</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Aluminium ion </span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup></span><br><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">(Polyatomic)</span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Ammonium ion</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">H<sup>+</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Hydrogen ion</span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Combined</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Cu<sup>+</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Copper (I) ion</span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Insoluble</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Cu<sup>2+</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Copper (II) ion</span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Greenish blue</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Fe<sup>2+</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Iron (II) ion</span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Pale green</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Fe<sup>3+</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Iron (III) ion</span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Yellow</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Ni<sup>2+</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Nickel (II) ion </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Green</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Cr<sup>3+</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Chromium (III) ion</span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Green</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
</tbody>
|
||
</table>
|
||
</figure>
|
||
<p> </p>
|
||
<h3><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Anion</span></h3>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Atom that gains e-, -ve ions</span></p>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Usually group 5 to 7. Like N<sup>3-</sup>, S<sup>2-</sup>, Cl<sup>-</sup></span></p>
|
||
<p> </p>
|
||
<figure class="table">
|
||
<table>
|
||
<tbody>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:150px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:200px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>Name</strong></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:200px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>Composition</strong></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:200px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>Color (Water)</strong></span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">O<sup>2-</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Oxide ion</span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;" rowspan="7"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Monoatomic</span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;" rowspan="3"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">React</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">S<sup>2-</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Sulphide ion</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">N<sup>3-</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Nitride ion</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">F<sup>-</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Fluoride ion</span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;" rowspan="12"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Colorless</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Cl<sup>-</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Chloride ion</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Br<sup>-</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Bromide ion</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">I<sup>-</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Iodide ion</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">OH<sup>-</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Hydroxide ion</span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;" rowspan="10"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Polyatomic</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">NO<sub>2</sub><sup>-</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Nitrite ion</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">NO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Nitrate ion </span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">SO<sub>3</sub><sup>2-</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Sulphite ion</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Sulphate ion</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">HSO<sub>4</sub><sup>-</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Hydrogensulphate ion</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">CO<sub>3</sub><sup>2-</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Carbonate ion </span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Hydrogencarbonate ion</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">MnO<sub>4</sub><sup>-</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Permanganate ion</span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Purple</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub><sup>2-</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Dichromate ion</span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Orange</span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
</tbody>
|
||
</table>
|
||
</figure>
|
||
<p> </p>
|
||
<h3><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Isoelectronic</span></h3>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">If they have the same number of electrons</span></p>
|
||
<p> </p>
|
||
<figure class="table">
|
||
<table>
|
||
<tbody>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:150px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;width:200px;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>Name</strong></span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Na<sup>+</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;" rowspan="3"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">10e<sup>-</sup></span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mg<sup>2+</sup></span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">N<sup>3-</sup></span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">S<sup>2-</sup></span></td>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">18e<sup>-</sup></span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Cl<sup>-</sup></span></td>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
</tbody>
|
||
</table>
|
||
</figure>
|
||
<p> </p>
|
||
<p> </p>
|
||
<h3><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Isotopes</span></h3>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">If they have the same number of protons but different amount of neutrons</span></p>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For example, <sup>12</sup><sub>6</sub>C (Carbon-12) and <sup>14</sup><sub>6</sub>C (Carbon-14)</span></p>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The chemical properties will be the same as they have the same number of electron.</span></p>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The physical property will be slightly different. </span></p>
|
||
<p> </p>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Iodine-131 is used in the detection and therapy of thyroid tumours.</span></p>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Iron-59 is used to monitor red blood cell production in bone marrow.</span></p>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Fluorine-18 is used for Positron Emission Tomography (PET) imaging tumors in oncology.</span></p>
|
||
<p><span style="font-family:Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Technetium-99m is used as a radioactive tracer and can be detected in the body by medical equipment (gamma cameras).</span></p>
|